Comparing different religions, philosophies, and belief systems can be a fascinating exercise in exploring their similarities and differences. While on the surface, these systems may appear vastly different; a closer examination can reveal common themes and concepts shared across different traditions. By examining the similarities and differences between these belief systems, we can better understand the fundamental human questions and concerns that have persisted throughout history. Moreover, studying these systems can help us appreciate the diversity of human thought and belief and promote cross-cultural understanding and empathy. This table compares concepts central to religions and philosophies, such as Yin-Yang, Purusha-Prakriti, Order-Chaos, Known-Unknown, Stability-Plasticity, and others. It highlights the similarities and differences between them.
Samkhya Vs Hinduism
| Properties | Samkhya | Hinduism |
|---|---|---|
| Ultimate Truth | Dualism – Purusha and Prakriti | Monism – Brahman |
| Purusha | Immutable, eternal, conscious, and inactive | Same as Samkhya, but may be identified with Brahman |
| Prakriti | Creative energy that manifests the universe | Material cause of the universe |
| Brahman | Not emphasized | Ultimate reality that pervades everything |
| Atman | Not emphasized | Eternal self, identical to Brahman |
| Mind | Buddhi (intellect), Ahamkara (ego), Manas (mind), and Chitta (memory) | Same as Samkhya, but may also include other concepts |
| Body | Sharira (physical body) | Deha (physical body) |
| Life and Death | Reincarnation | Reincarnation and Karma |
| Moksha | Attainment of liberation from rebirth and suffering | Same as Samkhya, but may involve devotion to a deity |
| Meditation | Samadhi (deep concentration and realization) | Dhyana (meditation) |
| Sacrifice | No specific rituals | Yajna (fire sacrifice) and Puja (worship) |
| Bhakti | Not emphasized | Devotion to a deity or guru |
| Scriptures and Texts | Samkhya Karika and Tattva Samasa (Samkhya Sutras) | Vedas, Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita, Puranas, etc. |
| Dates | Prehistoric Era | 4000-2000 BCE to Present |
| Famous Sages and Rishis | Kapila, Panchashikha, Ashtavakra, Vyasadeva, etc. | Vyasa, Valmiki, Shankara, Ramanuja, etc. |
| Concept of God | Not emphasized | Varies depending on tradition and sect |
| Worship | Not emphasized | Puja, Homa, Arati, and other rituals |
| Ritual purity | Not emphasized | Emphasized in some traditions and sects |
| Path to liberation | Jnana Yoga (knowledge), Karma Yoga (action), and Bhakti Yoga (devotion) | Same as Samkhya, but may involve other paths and practices |
| Relationship with nature | Not emphasized | Emphasized as divine and interconnected |
| Cosmology | Emphasizes the duality between purusha and prakriti | Varies depending on tradition and sect |
| Ethics | Not emphasized | Emphasizes dharma (righteousness) and karma (action) |
| Yoga | Emphasizes the practice of yoga as a means to achieve liberation and realization of the ultimate truth | Emphasizes the practice of yoga as a means to achieve spiritual progress and union with the divine |
| Types of Yoga | Jnana Yoga (knowledge), Karma Yoga (action), and Bhakti Yoga (devotion) | Hatha Yoga, Raja Yoga, Karma Yoga, Bhakti Yoga, Jnana Yoga, etc. |
| Influences on Yoga | Samkhya philosophy provided the theoretical foundation for many of the |
Atman Vs. Purusha
| Properties | Atman | Purusha |
|---|---|---|
| Definition | In Hinduism, Atman is the individual self, considered an eternal, unchanging, and indestructible essence of a person. It is believed to be identical to the ultimate reality, Brahman. | In Hinduism, Purusha is the cosmic self or universal soul, considered to be a pure consciousness and the source of all existence. It is the witness of all experiences and is beyond time and space. |
| First Mentioned | The concept of Atman is first mentioned in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, one of the oldest Upanishads, estimated to have been composed between 900 BCE and 600 BCE. | The concept of Purusha is first mentioned in the Rigveda, one of the oldest scriptures of Hinduism, estimated to have been composed between 1500 BCE and 1200 BCE. |
| Nature | Atman is the individual self, which is considered to be separate from the physical body and the mind. It is eternal, unchanging, and indestructible and is believed to be identical to the ultimate reality, Brahman. | Purusha is the cosmic self, which is considered to be the source of all existence. It is beyond time and space and is the witness of all experiences. |
| Relationship with Brahman | Atman is considered to be identical to the ultimate reality, Brahman. According to Advaita Vedanta, the non-dualist school of Hindu philosophy, the realization of the identity of Atman and Brahman is the ultimate goal of human life. | Purusha is considered to be a manifestation of Brahman. According to Samkhya philosophy, Purusha is the ultimate reality but separate from the material world. |
| Role in Liberation | The realization of Atman and Brahman’s identity is considered the ultimate goal of human life, and it leads to liberation from the cycle of birth and death. | The liberation from the cycle of birth and death is achieved by realizing the distinction between Purusha and Prakriti, the material world. |
| Associated Practices | The realization of the identity of Atman and Brahman is the goal of many Hindu practices, such as yoga, meditation, and self-inquiry. | The distinction between Purusha and Prakriti is realized through the Samkhya philosophy, which involves discrimination between the self and the material world. |
Atman Vs. Chitta
| Properties | Atman | Chitta |
|---|---|---|
| Definition | In Hinduism, Atman is the individual self, considered an eternal, unchanging, and indestructible essence of a person. It is believed to be identical to the ultimate reality, Brahman. | In Hinduism, Chitta is the mind-field or the totality of mental processes, including thoughts, emotions, and memories. It is considered to be an ever-changing aspect of a person. |
| Nature | Atman is a person’s eternal and unchanging essence, separate from the body and mind. | Chitta is the ever-changing aspect of a person, which includes thoughts, emotions, and memories. |
| Relationship with Brahman | Atman is considered to be identical to the ultimate reality, Brahman. The realization of Atman and Brahman’s identity is human life’s ultimate goal. | Chitta is not considered to be identical to Brahman. It is a product of Prakriti, the material world, and is separate from the ultimate reality. |
| Role in Liberation | The realization of the identity of Atman and Brahman is the ultimate goal of human life, and it leads to liberation from the cycle of birth and death. | The liberation from the cycle of birth and death is achieved by controlling Chitta’s fluctuations through yoga. |
| Associated Practices | The realization of the identity of Atman and Brahman is the goal of many Hindu practices, such as yoga, meditation, and self-inquiry. | The control of Chitta is achieved through the practice of yoga, which involves the eight limbs, including asanas (postures), pranayama (breath control), and dhyana (meditation). |
Hinduism Vs. Buddhism
| Properties | Hinduism | Buddhism |
|---|---|---|
| Ultimate Truth | Monism – Brahman | Non-self (Anatta) |
| Brahman | Ultimate reality that pervades everything | Not emphasized |
| Atman | Eternal self, identical to Brahman | Non-self (Anatta) |
| Self | Emphasized as essential and eternal | Emphasized as a mere illusion |
| Mind | Manas (mind) and Buddhi (intellect) | Citta (mind) and Vijnana (consciousness) |
| Body | Sharira (physical body) | Not emphasized |
| Reincarnation | Emphasized as a cycle of birth and rebirth | Emphasized as a continuation of consciousness |
| Nirvana/Moksha | Attainment of liberation from rebirth and suffering | Attainment of cessation of suffering and ignorance |
| Path to liberation | Jnana Yoga (knowledge), Karma Yoga (action), and Bhakti Yoga (devotion) | Noble Eightfold Path and Four Noble Truths |
| Types/Schools/Branches | Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism, Smartism, etc. | Theravada, Mahayana, Vajrayana, Zen, etc. |
| Concept of God | Varies depending on tradition and sect | Not emphasized |
| Worship | Puja, Homa, Arati, and other rituals | Puja, chanting, meditation, and other practices |
| Scriptures and Texts | Vedas, Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita, Puranas, etc. | Tripitaka, Sutras, Mahayana texts, etc. |
| Ethics | Emphasizes dharma (righteousness) and karma (action) | Emphasizes the Eightfold Path and Precepts |
| Meditation | Dhyana (meditation) | Samatha (calming) and Vipassana (insight) meditation |
| Differences | Emphasizes the existence of an eternal self (Atman), caste system, and the role of devotion and ritual in achieving liberation | Emphasizes the non-existence of an eternal self, rejects caste system, and emphasizes the role of individual effort in achieving liberation |
| Similarities | Emphasizes the importance of the spiritual path, compassion, and mindfulness. Both originated in ancient India and influenced each other in various ways. | Emphasizes the cycle of birth and rebirth, karma, and the need for ethical conduct. Both share concepts like meditation, liberation, and the importance of wise teachers. |
Kaivalya, Nirvana and Moksha
| Property | Kaivalya | Nirvana | Moksha |
|---|---|---|---|
| Source/Origin | Yoga philosophy, especially Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras | Buddhism, particularly Theravada and Mahayana | Hinduism, mainly in the Upanishads, and Jainism |
| Literal meaning | Isolation, detachment, or emancipation | Extinguishing, cessation, or unbinding | Liberation, release, or emancipation |
| Key Concepts | Purusha, Prakriti, Ashtanga Yoga | The Four Noble Truths, The Eightfold Path | Atman, Brahman, Karma, Dharma, Samsara |
| How to achieve | Practicing Ashtanga Yoga (Eight-limbed yoga) | Following the Noble Eightfold Path | Self-realization, spiritual practices, and devotion |
| Ultimate goal | Detachment from Prakriti, the realization of Purusha | Cessation of suffering, end of samsara | Union with Brahman, liberation from samsara |
| Realization/Experience | Recognizing the true self as separate from material nature | Awakening, inner peace, freedom from craving and suffering | Realization of the unity of Atman and Brahman |
| Key practices | Meditation, ethical disciplines, breath control, concentration | Mindfulness, meditation, moral conduct, mental cultivation | Yoga, meditation, devotion, philosophical inquiry |
| Role of moral conduct | Yamas (ethical rules) and Niyamas (observances) | Sila (moral virtues), Right Action, Right Speech, Right Livelihood | Dharma, adherence to one’s duties and responsibilities |
| Relation to suffering | Overcoming ignorance and attachment to material nature | Understanding the cause of suffering and its cessation | Transcending the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth |
| Relation to reincarnation | Liberation from the cycle of birth and death | Breaking the cycle of samsara, no more rebirth | Ending the cycle of karma and samsara |
Yin-Yang, Order Chaos, Purusha Prakriti
| Name of Religion/Belief System | Concept | Description |
|---|---|---|
| Taoism | Yin-Yang | Represents the duality of everything in the universe; Yin is the passive, negative force, and Yang is the active, positive force |
| Hinduism | Purusha-Prakriti | Purusha is the eternal and unchanging self, and Prakriti is the material world and its constant change and transformation |
| Confucianism | Yin-Yang | Represents the complementary nature of opposites and the need for balance and harmony in all aspects of life |
| Buddhism | Emptiness | Emphasizes the impermanence and interconnectedness of all things, and the absence of any fixed or inherent nature |
| Zoroastrianism | Good-Evil | Represents the dualistic nature of existence and the need to choose between good and evil |
| Stoicism | Order-Chaos | Emphasizes the need for rational order and structure in life to avoid chaos and achieve tranquility |
| Taoism | Known-Unknown | Emphasizes the importance of acknowledging the limits of knowledge and embracing the mystery of the universe |
| Buddhism | Samsara-Nirvana | Samsara is the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth, while Nirvana is the state of liberation from this cycle |
| Hinduism | Maya-Brahman | Maya is the illusory nature of the material world, while Brahman is the ultimate reality beyond all illusion |
| Christianity | Heaven-Hell | Represents the afterlife destinations of souls based on their actions during life |
| Judaism | Tikkun Olam | The concept of repairing or perfecting the world through acts of kindness, justice, and compassion |
| Islam | Tawhid | The belief in the oneness and unity of God and the universe |
| Jainism | Jiva-Ajiva | Jiva is the living soul, and Ajiva is the non-living matter |
| Ancient Greek Philosophy | Being-Becoming | Being is the unchanging and eternal essence of things, while Becoming is the constant process of change |
| Existentialism | Freedom-Determinism | Emphasizes the struggle between individual freedom and the constraints of society and fate |
| Chinese Philosophy | Stability-Plasticity | Represents the need for balance between stability and change, and the ability to adapt to new circumstances |
